History of public administration Essay

Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary Historical accounts of African usual administration often higher(prenominal)light the colonial setting and usually everywherelook pre-colonial Africa. The African cultivated service has its roots in precolonial institutions on which European mightinesss relied to build the colonial state and consolidate their administration. Thus, this chapter analyzes the training of African administration from the pre-colonial era up to the present. The stolon section discusses the pre-colonial flowing. The colonial arranging constitutes the second section.The trine section deals with the post-colonial period and discusses slightly problems associated with African administration. 1. The Pre-Colonial blockage From the Ashes of Pharaohs to the Berlin Conference At the end of the prehistoric period (10 000 BC), some African nomadic bands began to settle more than permanently in villages on the Nile River to develop the semipolitical foun dation of ancient Egypt. As these early farmers increased their mastery over soil and animal life, irrigation became a key development strategy to increase food production, which in turn multiplied their populations.Eventually, incompatible villages came to secern their common interests, to coordinate their efforts and broaden community linkages. People from different communities joined together by alliance or subjection for purposes of commerce or defense, and developed African Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) mankind ADMINISTRATION AND reality POLICY Vol. I Development of African Administration Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani empires, kingdoms, and chieftaincies.Two types of systems, vertical political systems and horizontal or acephalous societies, developed to help generate stable communities and foster prosperity. U SA NE M SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S Stateless societies were small political entities and had no bureaucracies as they were to the highest degreely found on kinship. hierarchical societies, however, had bureaucracies to carry out certain functions such as collecting imposees, supervising ceremonies, entertaining dignitaries, and compelling quite a little to do the linguistic rules bidding.These polities, which evolved before the arrival of Europeans in Africa, were either centralized or decentralized political entities presided over by emperors, kings, chiefs, or military commanders. The following analysis covers the first hierarchical form of rule that emerged some three millennia BC in ancient Egypt, followed by a brief overview of chivalrous Africa. The final sub-section discusses the African administration up to the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. 1. 1. Ancient Civilization of Africa The Case of EgyptAround 3300 BC, farming lineages along the Nile Valley joined together as villages to increase production of food and to defend themselves against outsiders. From these villages regional confe derations of amphetamine and Lower Egypt developed. By 3100 BC, a central authority emerged and unified these confederations to a lower place the rule of divine pharaohs. From 2700 to 2181, sextet dynasties succeeded each opposite to form the Old acres. A century and a half of civil contend and provincial rivalries gave rise to the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdoms that ruled Egypt from 2080 to 1640 BC.The Middle Kingdom was replaced by the Second Intermediate Period and the newfangled Kingdom from 1570 to 1090 BC. Three dynasties (18th through 20th) ruled in the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period began around 1089 BC with the Kushite Kings. The Egyptian empire was international subsequent to the conquest of foreign nations. The Old and Middle Kingdoms were highly centralized and ruled by god-kings or pharaohs. With its nifty at Memphis, the Old Kingdom was divided into provinces. Next to the king was the vizier, the administrative hand of the kin g, who was overly in charge of day to day administrative, fiscal, and judicial matters.Although very few administrative documents have survived, court documents cater a glimpse of the Egyptian bureaucracy. Three basic administrative divisions existed the De sidetrackment of the Head of the South, the Office of politics Labor, and the Treasury. The Palermo Stone provides further evidence of administrative structure in the collection of revenue and in the discernment of Egyptian wealth. On the Stone was documented a biennial administrative census that left postal code unaccounted for, so that taxes could be assessed even on the basis of canals, lakes, wells, and trees of an estate.The system consisted of a hierarchical structure with divers(a) administrative agencies spreading end-to-end the kingdom for effective management. Another politicsal task was the administration of justice, on which was founded the concept of maat (or justice), whereby some high priests bore the title of priest of Maat. In access to the capital city of Memphis, there were other towns of importance that Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) usual ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY Vol. I Development of African Administration Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F.Kisangani made up provinces headed by town governors, who were in any case chief priests in charge of temple revenue in galore(postnominal) parts of Ancient Egypt. Provincial temples were the subject of central administration regulations to avoid any strong power at the provincial level. However, during the first intermediate period, the office of governor in charge of civil personal matters became the office of chief priest. U SA NE M SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S The role of bureaucracy in these early kingdoms was to facilitate the direct of resources from different provinces to the kings court.If early administrations were in charge of maintaining irrigation and agricultural output, later administrati ons seemed to be more involved in supervising construction work and wealth transfer. The proliferation of these later types of bureaucracies, at the expense of those that utilise to maintain the agricultural system, would probably have produced pressures on the agricultural output and might have been the first sign of political decay in Ancient Egypt. The centralized system itself between the king, court officers, and overambitious governors may also have led to the same result.The New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period generated a smashing mass of documentation about Egyptian political and administrative life. The form of government remained the same, based on divine kingship. The government always stressed the religious function of the political system. infra the auspices of Gods, the government was expected to maintain the integrity of Egyptian territory and expand its frontiers. The most authoritative function of the government was to create civic and individual secur ity, and the vizier carried out the duty of ensuring that law and regulations were obeyed throughout the bureaucracy.The ordering was divided into hierarchical stratifications with the king at the top, a small free radical of high-ranking and wealthy officials next, and a much larger group of bureaucrats (scribes), priests, soldiers, stable masters, citizens, cultivators, and herdsmen filling the bottom layer. The Egyptian political system under the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period was divided into an internal government and a government of conquests. Internally, the civil government was run by two viziers (northern and southern), overseer of the granaries of upper and lower Egypt, and the chief burdensome master.The two viziers also supervised the overseer of the treasury and lower level officials in charge of bureaucracy, judiciary, and the police. At the lowest level of the administrative hierarchy were the chiefs, town mayors, and councils. The government of conq uests had several governors who supervised vassal kings and their plurality commanders. just about of the Northern Lands were small and scattered, and under the direct control of various battalion commanders. The goal of this decentralization scheme was to obstruct anyone from controlling a large estate and challenging the kings power.The governor of the Southern Lands was the Viceroy of Kush and his role became important internally at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty. He also supervised two deputies and a battalion commander. Military forces were all centralized under one commander. In addition to these administrative entities, there existed a religious government hierarchy, with the overseer of prophets at the top, a location held at various times by a vizier who was the head of two high priests. Below them was the priesthood bureaucracy. The army corps of the centralized system was maintained by a small group of powerful officials.They headed each surgical incision and report ed directly to the king who appointed Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY Vol. I Development of African Administration Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani and removed them. The bureaucracy consisted of a group of educated scribes whose role consisted of collecting taxes, conducting censuses, regulating agriculture, and administering justice and law with a small police force. A professional army was divided into various units, each with its own hierarchy of officers. U SA NEM SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S Pressures on land and rising inflation may have been politically significant in later long time of the New Kingdom, though bureaucratic inefficiency and abuse of power were probably the main causes of economic collapse. Besides the declivity of administrative integrity, another major cause that weakened the kingship was the changing relationship between the king, civil government, army, and a few powerful families . Some families came to control major economic resources of the state, and the civil service became less vulnerable to royal control.In addition, the kings tours of their provinces became less frequent, and royal princes and other deputies carried out religious rites formerly performed by the kings. During the prove Third Intermediate Period (1069 664 BC), Egypt was in perpetual crisis and the Egyptian civilization disappeared after the Roman conquest around 30 BC. In summary, the evolution of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the rise and fall of large scale of measurement governments that reflect alternating periods of unification and fragmentation. 1. 2. gallant Africa Medieval Africa was different from the Ancient in several respects.First, Medieval leaders attempted to balance local traditions and regional autonomy in response to their peoples needs by developing and consolidating large-scale kingdoms and empires for purposes of job or defense. A second difference was the pretend of Islam on African societies. Muslims believed that one God (Allah) called on them to undertake jihads (commonly known as holy fight against non-believers) when necessary. The most renowned of Africas medieval empires of Mali, Songhay and Morocco rose to the highest stages of their worldwide influence with Islam as the imperial religion. separate medieval African kingdoms and empires developed indigenous political ideologies based on regional customs and beliefs, speckle Coptic Christianity remained the official state religion in the Abyssinian kingdom of medieval Ethiopia. In 969 A. D. , Muslims from the Maghreb conquered Egypt and established the Fatimid Dynasty in Cairo (c. 970-1170 A. D. ), which was highly hierarchical and whose military was highly professionalized. This strict hierarchy of officials, and the controlling powers of the vizier, left fashion neither for the autonomous tendencies of provincial governors nor for the growth of widespread corruption.Tol erant of other religions, the system let Copts and Jews conduct prestigious positions in the administration. The centralized administration controlled tax revenues, the brookment of troops, and the allocation of military fiefs. The Fatimid administration was in charge of regulating and distributing the wets of the Nile River. Dams and canals were regularly repaired and improved even an occasional period of low water did not greatly damage the general economic situation. When the Fatimid rule in Egypt was threatened by European Christian Crusaders (c.1170), it was Egypts professional soldiers, or Mamluks (striver-soldier), who rallied behind Saladin to defeat the Crusaders. He then established a new Mamluk Dynasty in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY Vol. I Development of African Administration Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Cairo from 1171 to1517. By the thirteenth century, the institution of the slave-soldie rs became an integral part of the political and social system in many Muslim countries. The Mamluk oligarchy never accepted in its ranks person who was not a slave soldier, so that the military establishment not only remained hierarchical, but also continued to be a caste dominated by slave soldiers. U SA NE M SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S Most Mamluk caliphates were divided into military fiefs centralized under one single Caliph. The basic administrative entity was the village because the Mamluk dynasty obtained most of its revenues from landed estates. A major innovation to ensure payment was that the peasants were prohibited from leaving their villages without permission.In addition to land taxes, the Mamluk caliphates drew their revenues from customs duties, based on ad valorem and the religion of the merchants, so that Christian importers had to pay taxes as high as 30%, whereas Muslim importers paid only 10%. This canonical tax was abolished under the reform of 1316. Severa l other kingdoms, such as Ghana and Mali, developed in Medieval Western Sudan. But the best known was the Kingdom of Songhay founded around the trading town of Gao (c. 1000 A. D. ). The Songhay Kingdom broke away from Mali and subsequently arose to become the third great empire in the medieval western sandwich Sudan (c.1460-1590). Songhays founding emperor, Sunni Ali, established imperial authority northward into the Sahara in order to control international trade routes and valuable deposits of rock salt (which was mined and cut into large blocks to be traded for halcyon). Following Alis death, one of his generals, Muhammad Toure, overthrew the legitimate heir, and embarked on a hajj to Mecca. In 1496 he returned to wage jihad against nonMuslims. He conquered new territories and ruled over Songhays expanded empire as Caliph of West Africa. under(a) Muhammads authority (1493-1528), Songhay, especially the towns of Timbuktu and Jenne, rose to become one of the medieval worlds largest multinational empires. The administrative system was open enough to provide lower level citizens some type of up(a) social mobility. The empire was highly decentralized and Islam was used as a tool to assimilate different communities. Different categories of slaves cultivated fields, constructed adobe expressions and mosques, acted as porters, or served as soldiers and officials in the imperial government.Some of the last mentioned rose through government and military bureaucracies by virtue of meritorious work to achieve high positions of administrative responsibility, as did soldier Muhammad Toure, when he rose by military merit to become a general and then became the emperor of Songhay. As emperor of Songhay, Muhammad established effective central supervision over provincial governors. He also reformed Songhays imperial government so that merit (rather than birth) became the important criterion for advancement in bureaucracy.Eventually, after Muhammad became blind and was de posed in 1528, Songhays trans-Saharan trade declined. This was also part due to competition from European sea traders along the West African Atlantic coast, which undercut the trans-Saharan gold trade. After severe political crises of succession disputes, rebellions and civil war that Songhay emperors faced during the 1580s, their imperial army was resolutely defeated by Moroccos elite musketeers at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. Other kingdoms and chieftaincies came up throughout Central, einsteiniumern and SouthernEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY Vol. I Development of African Administration Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Africa. Although some of these polities were decentralized or confederated, most of them developed as centralized systems where the king or the chief represented the top, followed by the house of the king or an cozy circle of advisors, and finally the Council of Elders as the legislative branch. The army and bureaucrats were in charge of maintaining security and law, collecting taxes, and conducting censuses.In most polities, age was a major social feature of stratification, while in other areas the system was meritocractic. 1. 3. Beyond the Medieval Era to the Nineteenth Century U SA NE M SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S In the late 1500s and through the 1700s, Europeans and Arabs introduced new weapons and made new demands for captives of war throughout Africa to meet the demands of a growing international slave trade. Consequently, many of Africas previous patterns of political and economic growth were disrupted, even though many of the great traditions of medieval African politics and administration continued to guide their evolution.As African kingdoms and empires continued to develop, and trade between coastal cities and interior regions expanded throughout the continent, various African peoples established political confederations based on religious ideology, commercial linkages and/or military authority. Such confederations were committed to establishing broader nationalist ideologies, promoting literacy and advancement by merit, expanding both regional and international commerce, and undertaking significant administrative and military reforms. The first great social reformer and leader in North Africa was an Ottoman military commander, Muhammad Ali (1805-1848).He established the first secular schools, applied science and medical colleges, modern factories, modern printing presses, and stateowned textile and munitions factories. His successors continued his policies of borrowing foreign capital and building projects, such as the Suez Canal that was completed in 1869. In the west, the original Asante confederation, established by septenary clans near the city of Kumasi (in modern day Ghana), united around the symbolic Golden Stool of their ruler Asante-Hene. This confederation built roads and promoted agriculture, commerce, industry a nd education through self-help and self-reliance.The Asante emperors implemented several modernization policies in administration that included promoting advancement by merit and the development of state enterprise through public investment. By 1874, the British imperial army defeated the Asante army and annexed the Fante territories into their Gold Coast colony. In East Africa (c. 1800-1885), there was also a movement toward centralization of authority and broadened commercial linkages throughout the region, from Ethiopias Highlands to the Limpopo River in Southern Africa.In the first half of the nineteenth century, however, Africa continued to be significantly disrupted by international trade in slaves, even as new Euro-American markets began to demand large imports of such African-based commodities as palm oil, cotton, peanuts, and ivory. By mid-century, European merchants realized that Africans could produce such valuable exports more efficiently and humanely by working in their own countries than by working as slaves in the Americas. Many other nineteenth century African nations were consciously modernizing their various political economies and shifting to regional confederacies,